Modern Instructional Strategies in Physical Science
9.1 Online Learning Online learning, or virtual classes offered over the internet, is contrasted with traditional courses taken in a brick-and-mortar school building. The vast majority of institutions utilize a Learning Management System for the administration of online courses. Online learning is the backbone of student learning when the students are located remotely.
Definition of Online Learning: Online learning refers to instructional environments supported by the Internet.
Online learning comprises a wide variety of programs that use the Internet within and beyond school walls to provide access to instructional materials as well as facilitate interaction among teachers and students. Online learning can be fully online or blended with face-to-face interactions. Online learning is education that takes place over the Internet. It is often referred to as “e learning” among other terms.
Types of e-learning When all the participants simultaneously login to the course, learn through video conferencing and chat is known as synchronous e-learning. The type of learning that is possible at anytime, anywhere according to the convenience of the learner is known as asynchronous e-learning.
Benefits of Online Learning: Online distance learning meets the needs of an ever-growing population of students who cannot or prefer not to participate in traditional classroom settings. These learners include those unable to attend traditional classes, who cannot find a particular class at their chosen institution, who live in remote locations, who work full-time and can only study at or after work, and those who simply prefer to learn independently. The minimum requirement for students to participate in an online course is access to a computer, the Internet, and the motivation to succeed in a non-traditional classroom. Online courses provide an excellent method of course delivery unbound by time or location allowing for accessibility to instruction at anytime from anywhere. Learners find the online environment a convenient way to fit education into their busy lives. The ability to access a course from any computer with Internet access, 24 hours a day, seven days a week is a tremendous incentive for many of today’s students.
9.2 Blended Learning Blended learning is a formal education program in which a student learns at least in part through delivery of content and instruction via digital and online media with some element of student control over time, place, path or pace.
The term blended learning is generally applied to the practice of using both online and in-person learning experiences when teaching the students. In a blended learning course, for example, students might attend the class taught by the teacher in a traditional classroom setting, while also independently completing online components of the course outside the classroom. In this case, in class time may be either replaced or supplemented by online learning experiences and students would learn about the same topics as they do in the class – that is, the online and in-person learning experiences may vary widely in design and execution from school to school. Rotation, Flex, A La Carte and Enriched Virtual are the four blended learning models.
1. Rotation Model: A course or subject in which students rotate on a fixed schedule or at the teacher’s discretion between the learning modalities, at least one of which is online learning. Other modalities might include activities such as small group or full class instruction, group projects, individual tutoring and pencil and paper assignments. The students learn mostly on the brick-and-mortar campus except for any home-work assignments. Rotation model includes 4 sub-models such as Station Rotation, Lab Rotation, Flipped Classroom, and Individual Rotation.
a) Station Rotation: A course or a subject in which students experience the rotation model within a contained classroom or group of classrooms.
b) Lab Rotation: A course or subject in which students rotate to a computer lab for the online learning situation.
c) Flipped Classroom: A course or subject in which students participate in online learning offsite in place of traditional homework and then attend the class for face to face, teacher-guided practices or projects
d) Individual Rotation: A course or subject in which each student has an individualized playlist and does not necessarily rotate to each available station or modality.
2) Flex Model: A course or subject in which online learning is the backbone of student learning, even if it directs the students to offline activities at times. The teacher of record is on-site and the students learn mostly on the campus, except for any homework assignments. The teacher of record or other adults provide face-to-face support on a flexible and adaptive as needed basis through activities such as small group instruction, group projects and individual tutoring.
3) A La Carte Model- A course that a student takes entirely online to accompany other experiences that the student is having at a brick-and-mortar school or learning center. The teacher of a record for the A La Carte course is the online teacher. Students may take the A La Carte course either on the brick-and mortar campus or offsite. This differs from the full time online learning because it is not a whole-school experience. Students take some courses A La Carte and others through face to face
4) Enriched Virtual Model: A course or subject in which students have required face to face learning sessions with their teacher of record and then are free to complete their remaining course work remote from the face-to-face teacher. Advantages of Blended Learning Incorporating the asynchronous internet communication technology in to higher education course serves to facilitate a simultaneous independent and collaborative learning experience. This incorporation is a major contributor to student satisfaction and success in such courses. The use of information and communication technologies has been found to improve student attitude towards learning. By incorporating IT into class projects, communication between lectures and part-time students has improved and they are able to better evaluate their understanding. Students with special talents or interests outside of the available curricula use educational technology to advance their skills or exceed grade restrictions. Disadvantages Blended learning has a strong dependence on the technical resources with which the blended learning experience is delivered. These tools need to be reliable, easy to use, and up to date, for them to have a meaningful impact on the learning experience. Additionally, IT literacy can serve as a significant barrier for students attempting to get access to the course materials, making the availability of high quality technical support paramount.
9.3 Brain-Based Learning Brain-based learning refers to teaching methods, lesson designs, and school programs that are based on the latest scientific research about how the brain learns, including such factors as cognitive development- how students learn differently as they age, grow, and mature socially, emotionally, and cognitively. Brain based learning is a new perspective in teaching and learning that is based on using technology and knowledge of the brain and its functions in order to get the most out of the education process. This new educational discipline unites the knowledge of neuroscience, psychology, and education, with the objective to improve the learning and teaching process. Brain-based learning is motivated by the general belief that learning can be accelerated and improved if educators base how and what they teach on the science of learning, rather than on past educational practices, established conventions, or assumptions about the learning process. For example, it was commonly believed that intelligence is a fixed characteristic that remains largely unchanged throughout a person’s life. However, recent discoveries in cognitive science have revealed that the human brain physically changes when it learns, and that after practicing certain skills it becomes increasingly easier to continue learning and improving those skills. This finding that learning effectively improves brain functioning, resiliency, and working intelligence, has potentially far-reaching implications for how schools can design their academic programs and how teachers could structure educational experiences in the classroom.
Principles of Brain-based Learning
The principles to be considered by teachers while implementing brain-based learning are: 1. The brain is a complex adaptive system, which allows the growth of new brain cells. 2. The brain is a social brain, and it develops better when working together with other brains. 3. The search for meaning is innate. Students have a natural tendency to search for meaning instead of being satisfied with information alone. 4. Emotions are critical in the process of finding the meaning of information. Positive emotions drive our attention and enhance our learning and memory. 5. Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral attention. 6. Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes. 7. We have at least two ways of organizing memory- spatial and rote. Students learn best through their spatial memory. 8. Learning is developmental. Older students are found to have improved learning capacity when compared to the younger ones, and those with delayed brain development. 9. Complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat. Students who fear failure can’t learn easily. 10. Every brain is uniquely organized. Information is stored in multiple areas of the brain and is retrieved through multiple memory and neural pathways. Interactive Teaching Strategies For complex learning to occur, three interactive and mutually supportive elements should be present. These are
1) Relaxed Alertness: This is an ideal state of mind consisting of low threat and high challenge. This highlights the need to eliminate fear while creating a challenging situation.
2) Orchestrated Immersion: Here, a learning environment is created, which surrounds the learner with interesting, related, hands-on activities and authentic experiences.
3) Active Processing: Through active processing, the information is connected meaningfully to previous learning and the learner is allowed to actively process the information and experience, which forms the basis for making meaning.
The principles of brain-based learning could be effectively implemented through the following educational concepts as 1) Mastery Learning 2) Learning Styles 3) Multiple Intelligence 4) Co-operative Learning 5) Practical Simulations 6) Experiential Learning 7) Problem-based Learning 8) Learning through movement 9.4 Brain Based Learning Strategies i. Talking: The talking internalizes what they've learned. Give the children a few bits of information, and then they have "turn and talk" time, where they discuss what they've learned. ii. Emotions: The strong memories are closely related to strong emotional experiences, both positive and negative. The brain performs better in a positive emotional state. Students must feel physically and emotionally safe before their brains are ready to learn. Teachers can create a positive environment by encouraging and praising their students’ efforts. iii. Visuals: Vision is the strongest of the senses. Use posters, drawings, videos, pictures, and even some guided imagery with the children to help them learn. 50% are visual learners and prefer pictures, charts, and written text over lectures. 30% are kinesthetic learners and need more tactile (hands-on) and movement-based activities. 20% are auditory learners and do best when they talk about what they are learning. iv. Chunking: That means they need a chunk of information, then an opportunity to process that in some way. Here's where "turn and talk" works, as well as an opportunity to write, draw, or even move. The brain learns new information in chunks. Brain research states that children between the ages of 5 and 13 learn best when given chunks of 2 to 4 pieces of information. Children ages 14 and older can learn up to 7 chunks at a time. Teachers should plan for these limits and teach material in small chunks. v. Movement: Combining movement with the learning almost guarantees stronger learning vi. Shake it up: If you do exactly the same thing, exactly the same way, it becomes boring and the brain tunes out. Have a backwards day, turning the whole schedule around. Change the seating arrangement, do one part of the day completely different. vii. The brain needs oxygen: They say 20% of all the oxygen used in the body is used by the brain. That means we need to get the students up out of their seats regularly and moving! Students need a moment to “rest their brain” from a task. Allowing off-task time between lesson segments often increases a student’s focus. For example, allow students to take time to stand up and stretch, provide a 2-minute talk break, Brain Gym exercises, etc. By providing these moments, the brain will be more ready to stay on task and store information. viii. Brain Breaks: The brain can only take in so much information at a time. Think of the brain as a cup, once it is full, nothing else can fit and just runs down the side. You have to empty the cup to allow it to be filled again. The brain is similar. Students need to have time to process new learning in order to make room for more. Be sure to give your students a brain break every five to 10 minutes. This could be in the form of a think-share-pair, a movement activity, a well-placed joke… ix. Make connections: Connections are important for the brain. It can't hold random information; it needs to connect to something else that's already there. You can make connections through your own experience and stories. Children learn best when teachers teach new material first and review previously learned material at the end of instruction. x. Feedback: Practice doesn't make anything better unless the practice is accurate. Students need to hear they are on the right track. It works pretty well for motivation, as well. It is best for teachers to teach in short units (1 to 2 segments at a time) and then provide a student led activity time. Students need time to practice the skills they are learning. xi. Music: Music can be a powerful tool. We can learn the difficult aspects through music. xii. Acronyms: Create acronyms for your students, or let them create their own xiii. Hydration: Allow students to drink water during learning time. Research shows that dehydration causes higher salt levels in the blood which in turn raises blood pressure and stress. Dehydration also causes a loss in attentiveness and lethargy. Ideally, students should drink 6 to 8 glasses of water a day to be properly hydrated. xiv. Time for reflection: The brain also works on a time schedule. Children ages 5 to 13 learn best in 5 -10 minute increments. Children 14 and older learn in increments up to 10 – 20 minutes. Sometimes, teachers may extend time limits through positive reinforcement. Provide time at the end of a lesson to think about and discuss the topic. Understanding may not take place immediately, it may occur later. Processing time and reflection are vital to the learning environment. xv. Energy Level: Take advantage of students’ high energy time. There is a high-low energy level cycle that occurs during the school day. For example, most students have lower energy in the morning (especially during adolescence) and higher energy levels after lunch. A higher energy level correlates to an increased level of attention. Teachers should take advantage of the times during the day when the students’ energy levels are higher by teaching the most important material during these times. xvi. Space: Provide adequate personal space for the student. More personal space reduces stress for a learner. xvii. Location: Another easy thing to implement is location. Memory is very location based. You can vary where you stand in your class as you introduce new content, and/or vary where the students sit or stand. xviii. Positive Environment: First, it is imperative to set a positive and supportive classroom environment. The brain cannot learn well under stress. Higher-level thinking functions are rerouted to basic survival needs. Mirror neurons in our brains cause us to feel similar stress to those around us, causing the learning ability of the entire class to drop. Be sure to maintain a positive learning environment. xix. Optimism: An optimistic attitude should be modeled every day. Teacher may be the only optimistic person in a student’s life. Be sure to model and talk about optimism their future may depend on it. xx. Choice: Choice is another important and easy strategy. Students love to have choice. Their brains are more engaged when they have some sort of stake in the task at hand. If you are limited by your district and cannot offer some sort of content, book, or subject choices, here are some choice options you could utilize: Sit or stand, Where to sit, Pencil, colour pencil, or crayon and order of lesson. xxi. Anticipation: Before beginning a lesson, give students some specific information to listen for. Alternatively, let them know they will need to retell some information to a fellow student. They will pay close attention and retain more. xxii. Meaningful learning: The brain is more likely to retain information that is relevant and meaningful. Students need to know why what they are learning should matter to them. This is especially relevant to challenged learners. Implications for Education • Brain-based teaching must fully incorporate stress management, nutrition, exercise, drug education, and other facets of health into learning process. • Brain-based education must furnish a learning environment that provides familiarity and stability. • Educators should be able to satisfy the brain's enormous curiosity and hunger for novelty, discovery and challenge. • The brain is both scientist and artist, attempting to discern and understand patterns as they occur and giving expression to unique and creative patterns of its own. • Learners are patterning all the time in one way or another, searching for meaning. Teacher should not stop learners from patterning, but they can influence the direction. • Teacher should provide learners with problem solving and critical thinking skills. • Teachers should make sure of that the emotional climate is supportive and marked by mutual respect and acceptance. The cooperative approaches to learning support this notion. • Reflection & Metacognitive approaches should be encouraged. • Good teaching builds understanding and skills over time because it recognizes that learning is cumulative and developmental. • The teacher can and should organize the materials that will be outside the focus of the learner's attention. Teachers should engage the interests and enthusiasm of students through their own enthusiasm, coaching and modeling. • Teaching should be designed to help students benefit maximally from unconscious processing. You can use "Active processing" - Active processing allows students to review how and what they learned so that they can be responsible for their learning and the development of their own personal meaning. • Teachers should deliver his students the ways of reflection and meta-cognitive strategies. • Teaching should be multifaceted in order to allow all students to express visual, tactile, emotional, or auditory preferences. • Education needs to facilitate optimal brain functioning. Teachers should use a great deal of "real life" activity including classroom demonstrations, projects, field trips, stories, metaphors, drama, and interaction of different subjects and so on. • Vocabulary can be "experienced" through skits. - Grammar can be "in process" through stories or writing. • Success depends on making use of all senses, the more senses you use, the fixed embedded skills & experiences they get. • Whenever an individual learns something, there is always an emotional response. This means that every decision has some kind of emotion linked to it. This is considered one of the strongest implications of brain-based learning. This means that the classroom is actually an emotional place. Teachers need to encourage students to have positive attitudes. When teachers treat their students with respect, it builds a desirable environment that tends to help their students succeed. Teachers need to utilize materials that draw their students into learning because it is presented to them in an attractive and inviting way. Deep truths will be uncovered as the investigation into the child’s brain continues. 9.5 Experiential Learning Approach It is a method of educating through first hand experiences. Skills, knowledge, and experience are required outside of the traditional academic classroom setting, and may include internships, studies abroad, field trips, field research and service learning projects. The concept of experiential learning was first explored by John Dewey and Jean Piaget, among others. It was made popular by educational theorist David A. Kolb along with John fry developed the experiential learning theory, which is based on the idea that learning is a process whereby knowledge is created through transformation of experience. It is based on four main elements which operate in a continuous cycle during the learning experience such as: Concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. Figure 9.1: Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle The components of experiential-learning assignments vary to some degree, but generally follow the following criteria: • The project should be personally meaningful and have some significance to the student • Students should have opportunities to reflect on and discuss their learning experience throughout the process of assignment • The experience should involve the students whole person, including the senses, personality and emotions • Previous knowledge on the subject matter should be acknowledged Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model (ELM) Experiential learning can exist without a teacher and relates solely to the meaning-making process of the individual's direct experience. However, though the gaining of knowledge is an inherent process that occurs naturally, a genuine learning experience requires certain elements. According to Kolb, knowledge is continuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences. Kolb states that in order to gain genuine knowledge from an experience, the learner must have four abilities: • The learner must be willing to be actively involved in the experience; • The learner must be able to reflect on the experience; • The learner must possess and use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience; and • The learner must possess decision making and problem solving skills in order to use the new ideas gained from the experience. 9.6 Modern Instructional Approaches for Learning To provide open access to science learning and encourage a broader spectrum of students to pursue studies in the sciences, teachers must begin to address the diversity of learning styles among the students in our classrooms. For this, modern approaches with and without the use of ICT can be administered in science classrooms so that the diversity of learning styles can be developed in students. 9.6 (a) Jigsaw Jigsaw learning was developed by Elliott Aaronson and a group of graduate students in 1971. Each student is responsible for learning one aspect of a selected topic in depth and then teaching it to others. Jigsaw learning was used to bring about a climate of cooperation and to build interdependence. Use of this strategy developed a sense of team work in students while they acquired new knowledge or reviewed previous learning. Repeated use of the strategy has confirmed that it is also effective in helping students refine and extend their thinking about curriculum materials because of the effort they put into figuring out how to teach the material to others. Students start in their ‘home’ group and are then reassigned to an ‘expert’ group, each member of the home group going to a different expert group. In their expert groups, students help each other, master one segment of the assigned material and figure out together how to teach the material to their home groups. According to Robb (2003), the strategy works best with materials that involve learning new concepts and covering large amounts of unfamiliar ideas and vocabulary, as is often the case in science, social studies or literature classes. Instructional benefits of this strategy • Develops a sense of teamwork • Increases interaction • Builds individual accountability • Fosters cooperation • Fosters discussion • Builds negotiation and decision making skills • Builds comprehension • Builds listening and speaking skills Step by step 1. Divide the reading material into segments, depending on the number of groups you want to organize in your class. Groups should be diverse in terms of achievement level, ethnicity, language skills and gender 2. Organize the students into groups, explain the purpose of jigsaw and distribute the materials students will be reading. Have students number off within the group 3. Have students to move into expert groups. All the 1’s will be in one group and all 2’s will be in another group and so on. 4. Allow students time to read the material at least twice before they begin their discussions with other expert group members. 5. Allow time to students to discuss the material and determine what and how they will present, what they have learned in their home groups. 6. Have students return to their home groups, where they will now take turns teaching what they learned in their expert groups. Move among the groups to observe and monitor the process. 7. When the teaching is complete, conduct a debriefing of the activity. 8. Discuss the information with the class as a whole to check on their comprehension, discuss questions students might have, and clear up any misconceptions. 9.6 (b) Circle Learning The use of circle as both the organizational structure and descriptive metaphor for a meeting of equals is likely to have been a part of our history for as long as fire has. The learning circle is a mechanism for organizing and honoring the collective wisdom of the group and is present in many indigenous cultures. The learning circle has been used to describe group efforts with clear links to social change. Over time and across countries, civic organizations, neighborhood communities, trade unions, churches and social justice groups have used the idea of learning circles to empower their members to make choices and take action. The web can help to locate the many ways both present and past that the groups have used the term Study circle or Learning circle as a form of equal participation, reciprocity and honoring collective wisdom-embody the democratic principles of effective service-learning partnerships. They use learning circles, rather than more traditional forms of group meetings to structure their annual conferences. Primary teachers use simple form of learning circles when they gather the students at the rug for ‘circle time’. However many educators are using learning circles to connect students from around the world. Among the goals of this activity are helping students to develop the trust and respect for diversity of experience, and fostering both listening and speaking skills among peers. Researchers have used learning circle as a form of professional development to improve their practice. A similar term, ‘Quality circle’ was used in the 80’s to characterize the successful practice in corporate settings in which the hierarchical boundaries between workers and managers are flattened to encourage participatory management and team leadership. 9.6 (c) Concept Mapping The technique of concept mapping was developed by Joseph D. Novak and his research team in 1970. A concept map is a diagram that depicts suggested relationships between concepts. It is a graphical tool that designers, engineers, technical writers and others use to organize and structure knowledge. A concept map typically represents ideas and information as boxes or circles, which it connects with labeled arrows in a downward-branching hierarchical structure. The relationship between concepts can be articulated in linking phrases such as causes, requires, or contributes to. The technique for visualizing these relationships among different concepts is called ‘concept mapping’. Concept map define the ontology of computer systems. A concept map is a way of representing relationships between ideas, images or words in the same way that a diagram represents the grammar of a sentence, a road map represents the locations of highways and towns and a circuit diagram represents the workings of an electrical appliance. In a concept map, word or phrase connects to one another and links back to the original idea, word or phrase. Concept maps are a way to develop logical thinking and study skills by revealing connections and helping students to see how individual ideas form a larger whole. Concept maps were developed to enhance meaningful learning in the sciences. A well-made concept map grows within a context frame defined by an explicit ‘focus question’, while a mind map often has only branches radiating out from the central picture. Concept maps are constructed to reflect organization of the declarative memory system; they facilitate sense-making and meaningful learning on the part of individuals who make concept maps and those who use them. Components of a Concept map (i) Concept: Concept may be thought of as a mental framework of an event or an object. Any event or object is a concept because it has some identifiable properties or ideas associated with it. In addition, a concept also has a label (name). For example – A ‘ball-point pen’ is a concept because it has certain properties, i.e., it is long; it has a refill and it is used for writing. Also, it has this label ‘ball-point pen.’ In a concept map, concepts are usually presented enclosed within a circle or a box. The first step is to identify and enlist various key concepts in the topic. These concepts are then arranged in a two-dimensional array hierarchically in descending order, i.e. the more general concepts are placed at the top followed by the less inclusive concepts. Concepts occurring at same level of observation are placed at the same horizontal level. (ii) Linkages: They are usually represented by arrows or lines. They link two concepts appropriately. (iii) Labels for linkages: The label for most linkages is a word/s or a phrase— although sometimes we use symbols such as +, –, x or ÷ for linkages in mathematics. Labels highlight the relationship between two concepts. These labels for linkages are also named as proposition. Two or more concepts can be cross linked, if significant relationship exists between them. Thus, concepts in a concept map are not isolated collection of the concepts. They are interconnected together through well labelled linkages. Cross-links are particularly powerful connections, which form a ‘web’ of relevant and interrelated concepts. These links enhance the anchorage and stability in the cognitive structure of concepts rather than just connecting general concepts to specific concepts. They tend to connect different sub-conceptual structure. There is no limit on the number of connecting lines. As a matter of fact, greater number of connecting lines represents integrative thinking and depth of knowledge of the learner. Phases of the concept mapping Phase I: Presentation of abstraction • Students are presented with a definition or generalisation, which is linked to their existing cognitive structure. • Students are asked to identify various concepts and sub-concepts and enlist them. • Students’ understanding of these concepts is assessed by asking them to provide new and unique examples. Phase II: Propositional phase • The teacher uses prompts and cues to guide the learners to arrange the concepts hierarchically with the broader/general concepts at the top and the less inclusive concepts at the bottom, giving the whole structure the look of a pyramid. • The various concepts are interlinked logically by using (arrowhead) lines. • These lines are supplemented by word/words/phrases, which define them and illustrate meaningful relationships between the various concepts. • The whole concept map is viewed as a network of concepts. Phase III: Application The learners apply their knowledge to generate new examples and reflect on the existing ones. Phase IV: Closure The learners summarise the major ideas evolved during discussion Uses of concept maps The potential of concept maps needs to be explored in our schools as they are of tremendous use for learners, teacher, curriculum developers and evaluators. Some of the uses of concept maps are highlighted here. (i) For learners: Concept maps can be used by learners for meaningful acquisition of concepts. This can be accomplished through various mechanisms, such as: • Providing a visual representation of a particular material (e.g. text material). This helps the students to make better sense of the material, especially when the material is complex. A conceptual framework can be provided to elaborate on the key concepts. • Helping learners develop new relationships among concepts in one or more related areas, thereby creating new meaning. • Summarising material when preparing for examinations. • Motivating learners to think and engage in active learning as they try to construct the most plausible relationships. • Helping learners identify gaps in their knowledge. • Making learners aware of the explicit roles that language plays in the exchange of information. • Promoting reflective thinking associated with pushing and pulling of concepts, putting them together and separating them again. • Allowing learners to exchange view, thereby achieving shared meaning, which is possible, because concept maps are explicit. • Analysing an activity and an experiment in terms of procedure or content and reduce subsequent burden on working memory. • Providing practice by using specific concept labels which act as attention catchers especially for students struggling to learn. • Concept mapping as a teaching-learning strategy can be applied to facilitate learners to draw the ray diagrams of the formation of images by the lens and mirrors for different position of the object. It provides a holistic view of the phenomena of reflection and refraction of light. (ii) For teachers: Concept maps may serve teachers in several ways such as: • Helping in planning a lesson by identifying key concepts, their prerequisites and relevant examples. • Serving as a means for providing an overview of some unit. • Providing an operational definition of a teaching-learning goal by indicating the learning objectives that are to be attained. • Serving as a remarkably effective tool for helping learners to identify their alternative framework (misconceptions and naive concepts). • Helping in planning interdisciplinary teaching-learning by developing a conceptually coherent programme that integrates concepts from different areas. Thus, Construction of concept maps may be provided as an activity prior to a lesson to reveal previous knowledge of the learners; as homework; for consolidation; to summarise and review the lesson; in a group discussion; as an individual assignment in evaluation, etc. (iii) Concept maps as effective tools in complex laboratory environment: The connection between theoretical concepts and experimental observations can be considered as criteria for meaningful learning of scientific concepts in complex laboratory environment. New experiments can be designed to understand integration and linkages with the theoretical part of the concepts using concept maps. Concept maps can also be created as a part of post-laboratory activity. Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages • It can be used as a correction and assessment tool. • In large classrooms, it can be used individually or collaboratively. • It enhances concept retention. • It promotes meaningful learning rather than rote learning. • It allows seeing all your basic information on one page and can also be used as revision tool. Disadvantages • It takes more time as both teachers and learners need to be trained for using this approach as they are not familiar with it. • Individual feedback also takes more time. 9.6 (d) Think-Pair-Share This method was first developed by Frank Lyman. Think-Pair-Share is a strategy for getting students to respond more frequently in class and to stay actively involved by interacting with each other as well as the teacher. The teacher poses a question or gives a prompt, then directs students to • Think (individually) about your response • Pair with another student and discuss your ideas • Share your thinking with the rest of the class The teacher allows a few minutes for each step, and then moves students to the next step with a signal. Some teachers use a hand signals whereas others use a small bell or other audio signal. When students are experienced with the routine, they can do their own when they are working in small groups. This effective strategy can be applied to all grades in all content areas to help students to process information, think more deeply about it and communicate their thoughts and responses. Instructional Benefits of this Strategy • Increases time on task and active involvement • Provides time for students to formulate and ‘rehearse’ their responses before offering them to the whole class • Fosters positive interdependence, giving students the opportunities to learn from one another • Encourages students to listen to each other • Provides a change of pace from the usual interaction pattern, in which the teacher talks, one student talks and the teacher talks again. Step by step 1. Explain the steps, making sure students understand the purpose of each. As a reminder can post a brief explanation. 2. Decide on the signal you will use to indicate the start of each step. 3. Practice Think-Pair-Share at least once every day when you are conducting whole class activities. Some situations when students must use this strategy are • When responding to a reading assignment • During a hands-on activity • When discussing a film or other visual presentation • As a prewriting activity for generating ideas In science class, use Think-Pair-Share when students are getting ready to conduct experiments. After giving the assignment, first students have to think through the steps of experiment individually. Then to pair up, tell each other the steps they would use, and agree on what they will need to do. Then several students can share with the class what steps they will follow. 9.7 Science Education for Students with Special Education Needs The terms ‘special education needs’ (SEN) and ‘special needs’ commonly refer to students who require additional supports for learning and instruction. Although countries or school districts may have different ways to distinguish SEN, common designations under this umbrella include: intellectual disabilities, learning disabilities (LD), gifted, emotional or behavioural needs, physically dependent, deaf/blind, deaf or hard of hearing, visual impairments and chronic health impairments also referred to as exceptionalities. Researchers contend that the subject of science serves as an effective vehicle for students with SEN to engage in disciplinary understandings as most students, irrespective of achievement level, are able to develop an awareness of, and interest in, themselves and their immediate surroundings and environment through science. 9.8 Science Education for Slow Learners and Fast Learners 9.8 (a) Slow Learners There are children in science classes who are not motivated to learn science. They are slow in learning than average students; they are weak intellectually and emotionally. They are also called backward students. Slow learners have the same potential as bright students, but they probably differ in what they know, in their motivation, in their persistence, in the face of academic setbacks and in their self- image as students. To help slow learners, teachers should be sure that they can improve and try to persuade them to work. Some of the ways that can be help slow learners are: 1. Special grouping: Even if special programmes for slow learners are not available, at least the teacher can develop a teaching style which will be more effective for slow learners. 2. Remedial programmes: Like enrichment program for gifted students, remedial programs can be designed for slow learners. Programmed instructions work very well with slow learners because of self-pacing. 3. Role of teachers: The teacher has to be patient with slow learners, they need care and love. They develop hatred if they are not properly cared as they are emotionally weak. 4. Praise effort, not ability: Encourage students to think of their intelligence as under their control and especially that they can develop their intelligence through hard work. In addition to praising effort, praise a student for persistence in the phase of challenges or for taking responsibility for their work 5. Tell that hard work pays off: Tell students how hard famous scientists, inventors, authors and other genius people worked in order to be smart and make this lesson apply to the work students do. 6. Treat failure as a natural part of learning: Try to create a classroom atmosphere in which failure, while not desirable, is neither embarrassing nor wholly negative. 7. Catching up is the long term goal: Students should be made aware that they should work harder than brighter students. 9.8 (b) Fast Learners Fast learners have evidently high attainment in academic subjects; ‘talented’ pupils have evident high attainment or latent high ability in a creative or expressive art or sport. Characteristics: • Speak fluently with advanced level words. Seem older in their thinking • Very good memory for words, songs, rhymes, stories, places or numbers • Keen reader, may have read a bit before starting the school • Puts ideas together in unusual ways and may see things in a different perspective. May be a divergent thinker • Sets very high standards for self and others. May be has trouble due to perfectionism, may be quite judgmental. • Always does excellent work, beautifully presented. Near or at top of the class • Thinks and argues well, is independent, self-sufficient and may be bossy • Have excellent general knowledge for that age. Provisions for fast learners 1. Curriculum acceleration: Here learning is being flexible and giving student school work that is in keeping with the abilities without regard to age or grade. These students are allowed to progress through the curriculum at a more advanced rate than normal by grade advancement 2. Differentiation: It is a process of responding to the different needs of different learners by modifying the content. An important strategy of differentiation is support where different students receive different level and timing of support according to the need. 3. Enrichment: It is study, experience or activity which is above and beyond the normal curriculum followed by other children of the same age. 4. Compacting the curriculum: It occurs where a child has mastered an area or skill in a subject, as assessed by a pre-test, then such a pupil is allowed to miss work in areas in which he is already competent and use this same time saved on extension activities. Developing science activities for fast learners 1. Higher level thinking: Higher level thinking skills related to Bloom’s revised taxonomy by Anderson & Krathwohl, remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate and create is made possible by questioning types, making thinking explicit, pacing learning, conceptual learning and encouraging interpretations. 2. Creativity: Activities that promote creativity are open-endedness, encourage novelty, problem-solving and complex productions 3. Independence in learning: a) Choice in selecting activities and approaches b) ICT can be used as a learning tool for independent learning c) Depth of study and d)Self evaluation 4. Group work: Learners can take on roles within groups and offer group leadership 5. Peer tutoring: The more advanced students help their less advanced peers and develop a deeper understanding of their subject through the process of preparing to teach others. 6. Inquiry skills: Inquiry is considered to be very suitable for motivating and challenging the most able and potentially offering opportunities for higher level thinking, creativity, independence in learning and group work. One important way to develop inquiry is using practical work which has the following potentials such as problem based learning, design, drawing conclusions, appreciating method etc. 9.9 Identifying and Nurturing the Gifted and Creative Children Gifted children are exceptional children, each with their own innate specific capacity to excel in domains commensurate with their intellectual capability. Although most children show strengths of intellect or performance in some areas, the gifted display exceptional behaviour relative their peers. Reasons given for supporting the gifted in the various educational policy documents stems from two concerns: economic prosperity and equity. The future well-being of the nation and the society is seen as an outcome of fostering creativity and productivity. There is also an affirmation that the disadvantaged groups can and should be provided with opportunities for development of their potential. Despite the influence of extensive ill-informed lay opinion, gifted students can be disadvantaged by fear of a failure to cater for their special learning needs. Inclusivity and generalisations that all students display gifts can lead to initiatives that deny the gifted a chance to discover and exhibit their full potential. By assimilating all students have gifts we take a politically safe distance, which does not confront ideals of egalitarianism. However, the giftedness is a characteristic that sets apart a particular group of children. Intelligence is not a fixed appointment but grows in a nurturing environment. A country’s prosperity is clearly dependent on a population that is scientifically literate but also dependent on people who are essentially leaders in the field, who create knowledge and who can contribute to the solution of the problems that will confront us in the future. Classroom strategies for nurturing gifted and creative children 1. Learning contracts 2. Individual timetables 3. Ability pairing 4. Grouping according to ability, learning style, interests, mutual support 5. Older tutor, adult mentor 6. Interest centres 7. Involvement in extra-class competitions etc 8. Open ended projects School strategies 1. Co-operative or team teaching-share expertise 2. Special clustering-removal of students from one or more classes to meet special need 3. Cross-setting-ability grouping of students across year levels 4. Heterogeneous groups-composite groups-multi-age 5. Homogeneous groups-same age and ability 6. Cross age tutoring-older students working with younger ones 7. Specialist teacher 8. Electives program-non-graded opportunities to pursue individual interests 9. Acceleration-introduction of advanced concepts. 10. Resource centre-place where students can pursue advanced interests 11. Concurrent education-attending high school or advanced learning institute 12. Cluster groups-cooperation between schools in a region to provide a central facility and specialist 13. Field trips-excursions to work with mentors 14. Project classes-school based science research and extension 9.10 Creativity in Science Teaching Science is nothing but creative thinking and creative doing. Creativity is the most important instinct of the child. Some equate creativity with giftedness; some equate it with intelligence; some see it only in the field of creative arts, while certain others think that it is related to all fields of human endeavor. Creativity is the capacity of a person to produce compositions, products or ideas which are essentially new or novel and previously unknown to the producer. Some qualities of highly creative children: Such children: 1. are always baffled by something 2. are attracted to the mysteries 3. can attempt difficult mental jobs 4. view themselves differently 5. are more open to experiences and emotions 6. are relatively uninterested in small details 7. like solitude 8. are receptive to the ideas of others 9. make mistakes but are never bored 10. possess ability to make observations explicit 11. sense ambiguity 12. have strong emotions, affections etc. How to foster creativity in children? Creativity is a human quality that has played a crucial role in changing history and reshaping the world in its totality. A creative individual may not have high intelligence. All children have some creative potentiality, but in different degree. Creativity is a hidden seed, it can just be grown by providing suitable environments. Some suggestions for fostering creativity are: • Provide an intellectual atmosphere in the class room • Try not to limit what children can experience-encourage perceptiveness and openness to experience: emphasize imagination • Help pupils to apply principles to new situations • Show that you respect unusual ideas and questions more • Provide opportunities for self-initiated learning and give credit for it • Encourage divergent thinking • Allow time for students to reflect • Reduce pressure: provide for periods of non-evaluated practice or learning • Tolerate disorder during the creative process • Respect individual differences • Go on watching the creative behavior of pupils and shape them properly Techniques for catering the needs of Exceptional Children If gifted children are neglected, they would become maladjusted and will start creating problems. Hence special care should be given to them. A gifted child is one who exhibits special abilities, skills, talents and in general some kind of superiority over the average in every respect. A gifted child can perform consistently well in any worthwhile field of human endeavor. Apart from intellectual superiority, he possesses such personality traits as - a sense of humour, unusual interests and better adjustment, etc. Characteristics of gifted students of science 1. Extraordinary memory 2. Intellectual curiosity 3. Ability for abstract reasoning 4. Ability to apply knowledge 5. High creativity 6. Command of language 7. Active participation in science club activities 8. Habit of using leisure time for scientific hobbies 9. Interest in reading scientific literature beyond the demand of school assignment 10. Voluntary participation in science fairs 11. Habit of willingly undertaking special science projects 12. Interest in visiting scientific institutions The following plans have been put forward by different thinkers for providing education for the gifted. 1. Special Schools or Separate Schools: It is often suggested that we must have separate schools for the gifted children. Adequate facilities should be provided these schools so that gifted children may be helped to develop their special abilities and potentialities. But such segregation is often criticized and labeled as undemocratic. The criticism is that education received from these schools would develop an aristocratic attitude which might widen the gulf between the privileged and the unprivileged. 2. Ability Grouping or Separate Classes: In a heterogeneous group, there will be bright, dull and average students and usually the teacher proceeds at the pace of the average who form the majority. The result is that the dull cannot catch up with the rest and the bright feel bored. So, these two groups begin to create problem in the class. If on the other hand, pupils are grouped according to their ability, all gifted children constitute a separate class. Now every learning experience can be organised and worked out effectively in accordance with their abilities. The teacher can give them advanced subject matter for study. Here the group becomes homogeneous, and this helps to foster competitive spirit in them. It will also enable the teacher to easily enhance the standard of learning to a higher level, befitting the level of the students. Delinquency and truancy can be prevented to a great extent by ability grouping. Boredom too vanishes. But it has certain disadvantages also. It might create aristocratic attitude on the part of the group of the gifted, while members of the average group might develop jealousy. 3. Skipping or Double Promotion: Skipping implies double promotion. If a child shows an extraordinary achievement in one class, he may be given a double promotion. The aim of this promotion is to place the gifted student in a setting more appropriate for his level of attainment. By this, we can save time, cost and effort and also provide the gifted with challenging tasks. But such promotions can also prove very detrimental to the child. The children who get early promotion in the advanced grade are usually found not to make themselves adjusted with the children who are senior to them in age. Though intellectually at par with them they lag behind in emotional, social and physical dimensions and thus become the victim of adjustment problems. 4. Acceleration or Rapid Advancement: It is early admission to first grade and completion of say, three years of work in two years. The Gifted can be promoted to an advanced grade at the end of half year. One disadvantage of this programme is that such a student may be otherwise immature as compared to his class-mates, and therefore, at a disadvantage in certain other respects. 5. Enrichment Programmes: By enrichment programmes we mean the inclusion of greater variety of learning experiences at a more advanced level of curricular content to the gifted children according to their abilities. This advancement of standard may be not only in the academic content to be learnt but also in the extent of participation in challenging cocurricular activities. Thus, they can be given responsibilities in the working of Science Club, Arts Club, Sports Club. School Parliament and the like. Activities such as gardening, painting, dramatics and music also may be tried. Monitorial system may be tried where the superior pupils give help and guidance to the average and the dull in academic subjects. Enrichment programme is the most suitable plan for the education of the gifted children in our country wedded to democracy and socialism. It not only provides facilities for maximum development of the special abilities and potentialities of the gifted child but also takes care of the development of his total personality.
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